In order to fully answer the question 'how is gender portrayed in the film Laura?' it is necessary to look at it in context. Firstly, it is important to understand the society of 1940s America and how traditional roles for men and women were changing. Secondly, it is important to understand Laura in the context of its style and genre conventions. The source material, its adaptation and the production of the film must also be explored, as well as the casting of the actors and their direction. Lastly, within the film itself the plot, dialogue and mise-en-scene are all important indicators.
During the 1940s a number of films, referred to as 'women's pictures', were made, aimed at and starring women (Hanson, 2007). According to a Gallup poll in 1941, 51 percent of American film audiences were female. A manpower shortage during WWII meant that women were actively encouraged by the government to seek employment. Some of these women found work in Hollywood. Angela Martin identified 85 noir films from the 40s and 50s that contain women as central characters, of these films 33 had women in production roles such as writers, producers or directors. Many young women were living independently and films were reflecting this. For example the character of Laura in the 1944 film of the same name is an unmarried advertising executive. Though noir is often characterised as a genre dominated by male protagonists there were a number of films that could be classed as both women's pictures and noir such as Mildred Pierce (1945), The Reckless Moment (1949) and Whirlpool (1949) (Krutnik, 1991).
The term film noir, as applied to American films, is attributed to a 1946 article by Nino Frank (Borde and Chaumeton, 1996). The summer of 1946 was the first time French audiences were able to watch American films since the Nazi Occupation. The article mentions The Maltese Falcon (1941), Murder my Sweet (1944), Double Indemnity (1944) and Laura (1944) as having common themes that had not been present in American cinema previously. He wrote that they contained 'the dynamism of violent death ... [and should be referred to as] … the crime adventure, or, even better yet the crime psychology film' (Palmer 1996, pp. 21). In America these films were most commonly known as 'psychological thrillers' (Spicer, 2002). Cowie calls noir 'the genre that never was' (1993, pp. 121) and there has been much debate whether film noir is a genre, a cycle of films or a style. What constitutes noir is almost as controversial. Elements such as use of low key chiaroscuro lighting, a sense of cynicism, certain character types (the femme fatale, the hardboiled male) and use of narrative devices (such as voice over or flashbacks) are not present in many films considered to be noir nor are they exclusive to noir (Hanson, 2007). Gledhill defines noir as 'world of action defined in male terms' (Hanson, 2007, pp. 3) but Laura is one of many films that challenges the idea of noir as an exclusively male domain. Perhaps it is noir's sense of criminal psychology that truly defines it. Unlike other films about crime, noir films were told from the criminals' perspective (Borde and Chaumeton, 1996).
Production and Development of Laura
The film Laura was based on two novels by Vera Caspary that depicted 'an atmosphere of sexual perversity among the upper crust' (Hirsch, 2007, pp. 95). Early drafts of the screenplay included narration by three separate characters (Waldo Lydecker, Mark McPherson and Laura Hunt) however only Waldo's voiceover remains in the finished film. Otto Preminger, the film's producer and later director, found Waldo the most interesting character and complained to Caspary that 'Laura has no character and no sex ... [to which she responded] ... then why did she have to pay a gigolo? ... Laura gives everything with her love' (Hirsch, 2007, pp. 97). Preminger was not the only one unhappy with Laura's characterisation. Studio Head Darryl F. Zanuck wrote a memo about the script complaining 'I doubt any first rate actress would play her. She does no thinking in the picture at all. She has no decisions to make' (Fujiwara, 2008, pp. 37). Laura's voiceover survived three drafts before it was eventually scrapped in the 1944 shooting script. Mark's voiceover lasted longer but was also cut.
At this time in Hollywood screenplays had to be submitted to the production code administration for approval (Fujiwara, 2008). Several concerns about Laura were raised by the censors who asked that 'the filmmakers should avoid implying that either Laura and Waldo or Diane and Shelby Carpenter have had sex ... [they also asked that the line] … You like your men better if they're not a hundred percent be removed as it implied Waldo was homosexual' (Fujiwara, 2008, pp. 38). The line was dropped but the film is full of implicit suggestion. Preminger had to fight to get Clifton Webb cast as Waldo because Zanuck felt that his camp mannerisms would not go down well in the Mid West. However Preminger felt Webb captured New York's 'big town sophistication' (Fujiwara, 2008, pp. 40) and Zanuck eventually conceded. In another memo Zanuck objected to two lines in which Laura was suggested to admire Mark and Shelby's muscular physiques. Composer David Raskin recalled that Preminger called Laura 'a whore' but her portrayal in the film is sympathetic and her independence and sexuality are not shown to be incompatible with her kindness or good manners. Caspary stated that her character in the novel was 'an independent girl who earned her living and pampered her lovers' (Hirsch, 2007, pp.96).
Laura's portrait, the idealised image of a woman, is shown prominently during the opening credits and again at the end of the film (Laura, 1944). The first scene takes place in Waldo's apartment full of eclectic objet d'art. Waldo wants to own and keep Laura like one of his possessions. He is disgusted and jealous of her attraction to other men and makes a number of negative remarks about their attractive physical appearances. He speaks of love as something pure and eternal and despises the idea of her having 'a disgustingly earthy relationship.' He tells Mark that he introduced Laura to the right people and showed her how to dress and style her hair. He is a Pygmalion figure transfixed by his own creation though he admits that 'It was her own talent and imagination that enabled her to rise to the top of her profession.' He praises her 'eager mind [and] innate breeding' but he only values her as long as she defers to him. When she no longer conforms to his perfect idea he decides to kill her.
Mark and Waldo's first meeting takes place whilst Waldo is bathing (Laura, 1944). Mark is investigating Laura's supposed murder (she will later appear alive, the murder arising from a case of mistaken identity). Waldo shows no embarrassment at being questioned whilst naked and even asks Mark for a washcloth and robe. Mark tosses the washcloth at him and smirks as Waldo dresses. Waldo takes great care in dressing, he has an effeminate manner and sharp wit. Mark is working class, masculine and straightforward. The two are opposing images of masculinity and they dislike each other almost immediately. Dana Andrews who played Mark recalled that he was first asked to play the character as college educated until Zanuck told him to play it in the conventional hard-boiled style 'like Pat O'Brien' (Fujiwara, 2008).
Waldo claims to be 'The only one who really knew [Laura]' and narrates the story of their relationship from their first meeting (Laura, 1944). Laura is shown at first as demure and apologetic but she is also ambitious and independent. She tries to get Waldo, a famous author, to endorse a pen for her advertising agency but this annoys him. She tells him that it was her idea to approach him and that she had the ad made up herself. She has acted on her own initiative. Later Laura will tell Mark that she has had career aspirations since she was young. Her mother listened 'sympathetically... and then taught me another recipe.' This line subtly conveys the conflict between traditional views of women's roles and contemporary ideas. When Mark censures her for reneging on her promise to stay at home she replies 'I never have been and never will be bound by anything I don't do of my own free will.' Afterwards she tells Waldo that she no longer wants to see him because of his constant interference in her relationships. Waldo tries to be dismissive but she stands firm. She is independent and free thinking whilst retaining her femininity. She is assertive without being aggressive. Although only Waldo's version of events are depicted, he fails to hide his obsessive attachment to Laura.
Laura is a character who both conforms to and deviates from expected notions of women. At the time the film was made women were beginning to enter the workplace in greater numbers. The portrayal of Laura as an independent, career woman is in keeping with the screenplay's source material and in step with the government's drive to get women into work. Though Laura's character is overshadowed by that of Waldo's, memos during the production show that the filmmakers were conscious that she should have agency and be a multidimensional character. Though the director, studio head and production code office all showed disapproval of her sexual morals her onscreen depiction is sympathetic.
In many ways the male characters fit more neatly into standard noir characterisations. Waldo is the obsessive criminal who's sexual ambiguity is a sign of his moral perversity. Mark's vernacular and brusque manner signal him out as the working class, hard-boiled hero but his own obsession with Laura also brings his morals into question and Waldo states that 'He isn't capable of any normal, warm human relationship... when he thought you were dead that's when he wanted you most.'
Laura was a success on release garnering 5 Oscar nominations and boosting the careers of its director and lead actors. It helped define the term film noir yet it is also atypical of noir and its treatment of gender does not fit into the idea as an exclusively masculine genre. Though reviews at the time were favourable, some critics opined that when the real-life Laura appeared on screen she did not live up to expectations, but they are missing the point (Hilier and Phillips, 2009). No-one could live up to the perfect portrait that has been painted of Laura and this is what motivates Waldo to murder her.
References
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